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Nairobi, Kenya — A U.S. Marine Corps general who commands forces in Africa says stability and support programs for Somalia are in the works as the country prepares for the withdrawal of African Union troops in December.
General Michael Langley, head of the U.S. Africa Command, said that after meeting this past weekend with Somali President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud and his top military official, Major General Ibrahim Sheikh Muhyadin Addow, he’s confident the country can manage its own security after the December withdrawal of the African Union Transitional Mission in Somalia, known as ATMIS.
Langley’s remarks, in a virtual briefing to reporters Thursday, came 2 1/2 years after the multidimensional mission was authorized by the U.N. Security Council, in part to help stabilize the country following years of insurgency by the militant group al-Shabab.
Langley said that Somali authorities have told him military operations in the southern and central parts of the country are focused on liberating some areas from the militants and stabilizing others.
“The operations are ebbing and flowing,” Langley said. “I’ll just use some of their narratives. They have a young army, it’s a building army, so there are some successes and some setbacks, but I think the morale across the forces is building and they are very enthusiastic they’re going to be able to keep al-Shabab back on their heels going forward in future operations.”
In a briefing to the Security Council in June, Mohamed el-Amine Souef, head of ATMIS, told the council that the threat posed by al-Shabab remains unpredictable. Citing a recent attack on Somali security forces in the Galmudug region, and a mortar attack on the ATMIS camp in Baidoa, he said the group still retains the ability to conduct devastating assaults.
Although Somali forces supported by ATMIS have achieved significant gains in the fight against al-Shabab, support from international partners is essential to maintain the momentum, he said.
After visiting Somalia, Langley arrived in Kenya, which contributes troops to ATMIS, where he said he plans to engage with the Kenyan military leadership to explore future prospects on how to help the Somali army hit its operational objectives.
“They have been a tremendous partner with the Somali national army, institutionalizing, professionalizing, helping them to be able to operate in various areas, collaborating along the border to ensure the defeat of al-Shabab,” Langley said.
In West Africa, U.S. troops recently withdrew from Niger, where they were ordered to leave after a military junta took power. Juntas that took power by force also rule Mali and Burkina Faso.
Langley said the way forward on security cooperation across the Sahel is still to be determined, but added that U.S. forces will stay engaged.
“In the interim, yes, we are pivoting to some degree on like-minded countries with democratic values and shared objectives and shared challenges across the coast of West Africa,” he said. “So yes, we are in talks with Cote D’Ivoire, in talks with Ghana and Benin, as well as we start to reset and calibrate some of our assets.”
He said those countries are facing threats from terrorist groups like al-Qaida and Islamic State, which initially operated in Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger, but are now moving toward other countries across the region.
Buckle up because Psaraki is about to become your new obsession.
Imagine this: a warm evening, the faintest whisper of salt in the air (Brooklyn may not be the Aegean, but it sure gets close), and a table brimming with the kind of Greek flavors that make you forget everything else. This isn’t just dinner; it’s an experience.
And trust me, coming from a half-Greek Texas girl who knows her way around a good meal, Psaraki is the kind of place that’ll leave you longing for more.
James Paloumbis, the mastermind behind this Mediterranean jewel, brings 28 years of NYC’s restaurant savvy to every detail here. Walking into Psaraki feels like stepping into a chic seaside taverna — only here, you’re treated to views of the Brooklyn Bridge, the Manhattan skyline, and the Williamsburg Bridge.
It’s a mesmerizing juxtaposition: the tranquil ambiance of a Greek escape with the raw energy of New York just across the water. There’s a certain electricity in the air that makes the whole experience irresistibly seductive.
Now, let’s talk about the food — because this is where Psaraki truly sets hearts (and appetites) racing.
James has a philosophy: homemade in the truest sense of the word. His dishes aren’t just inspired by family recipes; they are family recipes, passed down through generations, crafted with love, and brought to life on your plate.
The Fisherman’s Table Experience is the highlight — a stunning, shareable feast featuring classics like horiatiki, saganaki, calamari, octopus, and branzino. Each dish arrives perfectly prepared, every bite a beautiful homage to Greek culinary tradition. And for those with dietary needs, everything fried is, miraculously, gluten-free. Sophisticated and inclusive? Yes, please.
But what’s a sultry summer evening without a cocktail to match? Psaraki’s drink menu reads like a Mediterranean dream.
The Psaraki Spritz, with Otto’s Athens Vermouth and Pink Grapefruit Soda, is as refreshing as a breeze off the Santorini coast, while the Green Tears, a smoky concoction of Mezcal, Skinos, basil syrup, and lemon, is bold, intriguing, and undeniably irresistible.
Whether you’re here for a romantic evening, a gathering with friends, or a solo indulgence, Psaraki strikes the perfect balance between laid-back Greek hospitality and cosmopolitan sophistication. James Paloumbis and his team are passionate about what they do, pouring their heart into every dish, every drink, and every detail of your evening.
So go ahead, make that reservation—you’re in for a refined and unforgettable escape, Greek-style.
Psaraki, 420 Kent Ave., Williamsburg, Brooklyn. (212) 220-5035. psaraki.com.
Brooklyn came together this week to honor the memory of those lost on Sept. 11, 2001 with a series of poignant commemorations, memorials and tributes spread across the borough.
From solemn ceremonies at the Brooklyn Heights Promenade to reflective gatherings at local firehouses and parks, the borough paid tribute to the resilience and unity that emerged from the tragedy, ensuring that the memories of the fallen were honored and preserved.
Patriot Day at Fort Hamilton
U.S. Army Garrison Fort Hamilton marked Patriot Day with its annual 9/11 National Day of Service and Remembrance Ceremony on Sept. 10, reflecting on the lives lost 23 years ago and honoring those who have since defended the nation.
Col. Melissa Cantwell, the base’s second female military officer in its 197-year history, addressed the gathering, calling it a “time to pay tribute.”
“It’s hard to believe it was 23 years ago — it feels like yesterday,” she said. “Every one of us remembers where we were on that day because we know freedom is not free. Men and women from all backgrounds have come together to serve this great nation selflessly, with the support of their families and civilians, continuing to build on our Army’s legacy of strength and resilience.”
The ceremony featured a 21-gun salute and the playing of taps. A wreath was placed at the garrison’s 9/11 memorial by Col. Cantwell, Garrison Command Sgt. Maj. Christopher Hill, U.S. Army Reserve Maj. Gen. Kris A. Belanger, commanding general of the 99th Readiness Division, and CSM Corey A. Thompson, also of the 99th Readiness Division.
Marine Park remembrance
A somber yet deeply moving 9/11 memorial ceremony unfolded at Marine Park on Wednesday, as community residents gathered to honor the memory of those who sacrificed their lives and those who continue to bear the weight of that tragic day.
The ceremony was marked by heartfelt tributes and poignant reflections from several speakers. Among them was Donald Cranston, who shared a personal and emotional account of his brother, NYPD Officer Brian Cranston. Brian Cranston, who had served at Ground Zero, succumbed to cancer linked to his work at the site. Struggling to hold back tears, Donald expressed the profound loss felt by his family and the ongoing impact of 9/11 on their lives.
Paul Curiale, a long-time community resident, emphasized the importance of keeping the memories of 9/11 alive. His remarks underscored the collective resolve of the community to remember and honor those who gave their all.
Democratic leader Frank Seddio recalled the harrowing moments of that day with vivid clarity.
“When the towers fell, my heart just sank, followed by a crushing blow to my beliefs and freedoms,” he said to a crowd in tears.
As the ceremony drew to a close, the Marine Park community united in a collective embrace, expressing their deep gratitude to first responders and honoring their continued commitment to keeping the community safe.
Asser Levy Park memorial
On Wednesday afternoon, locals and elected officials gathered at Asser Levy Park in Coney Island to pay tribute to the victims of the 9/11 attacks, with a special focus on the 18 Brooklynites memorialized on a plaque inside the park.
Attendees laid flowers and lit candles in a solemn tribute to those lost.
A number of local elected officials spoke at the event, including Council Members Justin Brannan and Inna Vernikov, and Assembly Members Alec Brook-Krasny, Helene Weinstein and Michael Novakhov. Solomiya Momot, Director of Constituent Services, represented New York State Senator Jessica Scarcella-Spanton.
Speakers at the memorial emphasized the importance of ensuring that future generations understand the events of 9/11. They stressed that many younger people have never met or remember family members who passed away in the attacks, highlighting the need to keep the memory of that day alive for those who weren’t there to witness it.
Valentina Lygin, who lost her son Alexander in the attacks, was also among the speakers, representing the deep personal and community loss felt on this anniversary.
Though the annual Wall of Remembrance candlelighting ceremony was canceled due to unforeseen circumstances, the site remained open to the public, as it does year-round. Many who paid their respects at Asser Levy Park walked over to the Wall of Remembrance afterward to continue their observances. The tribute, located on the western wall of Maimonides Park, is made up of three 30-by-12-foot granite panels, holding the laser-engraved portraits of 417 first responders. PAPD K-9 Sirius is also honored on the wall.
American Veterans Memorial Pier in Bay Ridge
Over 100 people gathered at the American Veterans Memorial Pier in Bay Ridge on Wednesday to remember the victims of the attacks. Law enforcement officials, servicemembers, and elected leaders spoke to the crowd, which waved American flags and solemnly gazed across the Manhattan skyline, with the beaming tower lights in view.
Chief Fire Marshal Daniel Flynn, a lifelong Bay Ridge resident, emphasized the deep connection his community has to the events of that day.
“In this neighborhood, you find no shortage of streets renamed for FDNY and NYPD heroes who responded on September 11th, 2001,” Flynn said. “For 23 years we have mourned and grieved our loved ones … We will never forget who we have lost, what was sacrificed that day, and what we continue to sacrifice 23 years later, as our members continue to suffer from World Trade Center illnesses.”
The Bay Ridge community, particularly known for its strong ties to first responders, has been uniquely affected by the aftermath of the attacks, as many continue to suffer from illnesses related to their service that day.
“One of the reasons why our community has felt the loss so disproportionately is because we are a community full of first responders, some of whom have passed from cancer in the decades since,” Council Member Justin Brannan said. “Here in southern Brooklyn, especially in Bay Ridge, it feels like we couldn’t possibly forget, because the loss is still ongoing.”
Captain Kristen Schafer of the 68th Precinct commended the community for its commitment to remembrance.
“This community comes together every year, year after year, and honors their vow to never forget,” she said. “For the moms, dads, wives and husbands, children who never got to live another day with their loved ones, we remember.”
State Senator Andrew Gounardes spoke about the evolving nature of the pain felt by those who lived through 9/11.
“The pain we feel as individuals and as a community never fully disappears, it merely evolves and changes as we all do over time,” he said. “The best way to honor the memory of those we lost is to work toward a better future for everyone.”
The vigil concluded with a moment of silence, as attendees gripped plastic candles and reflected on the lives lost, all vowing to “never forget.”
Other commemorations
A Brooklyn firehouse honored several of its own on Wednesday, and Green-Wood honored the more than 100 killed on 9/11 who rest at the historic cemetery with a program on the hill overlooking the Tribute in Light.
Members of Engine Company 214 and Tower Ladder 111 in Bedford-Stuyvesant remembered five firefighters who were killed during the terrorist attacks on Sept. 11, 2001, when hijacked planes struck the World Trade Center, killing nearly 3,000 people and devastating the city.
“This is a firehouse that is steeped in tradition,” Tower Ladder 111’s Steve McKinney told Brooklyn Paper. “Every time I get on the rig, I take a look at their pictures hanging on the wall to remember their commitment to excellence.”
Green-Wood’s memorial included words of remembrance, music and a reading of the names of victims buried at Green-Wood.
Other commemorations included the Seth Low Park Memorial, hosted by Assembly Member William Colton and Council Member Susan Zhuang in Bensonhurst; the FDNY Battalion 57 Memorial Mass, held at the Co-Cathedral of St. Joseph in Prospect Heights; St. Ann’s Annual Interfaith Service in Brooklyn Heights; and the Brooklyn-Bedford Park 9/11 Memorial Committee’s annual candlelight vigil at Bill Brown Park in Sheepshead Bay.
Additional reporting by Arthur de Gaeta, Paul Frangipane, Erica Price, Lloyd Mitchell and Kirstyn Brendlen
TIME has published its second annual list of the World’s Best Companies, in partnership with Statista, a leading international provider of market and consumer data and rankings. The result of this quantitative study: 1,000 companies forging the path into the future. Here’s how the winners were selected.
Methodology
The research project “World’s Best Companies 2024” is a comprehensive analysis conducted to identify the top performing companies across the globe. The study was based on three primary dimensions: Employee Satisfaction, Revenue Growth, and Sustainability Transparency (ESG).
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The first dimension, Employee Satisfaction, was evaluated using survey data from employees worldwide. The surveys were conducted in over 50 countries with data collected from approximately 170,000 participants. The evaluation encompassed evaluations of employers across the dimensions image, atmosphere, working conditions, salary, and equality by verified employees as well as direct and indirect recommendations.
The second dimension, Revenue Growth, was assessed using data from Statista’s revenue database and targeted research, which contains company growth data for the last three years. The companies had to meet certain criteria to be considered for the evaluation, including generating a revenue of at least US $100 million in the last available fiscal year and demonstrating positive revenue growth from 2021 to 2023*. Both relative and absolute growth were considered in the evaluation.
The third dimension, Sustainability Transparency, was evaluated based on ESG data among standardized KPIs from Statista’s ESG Database and targeted data research. To formulate a comprehensive ESG index, multiple data points were collected. For the environmental evaluation, this included the carbon emissions intensity and reduction rate, as well as the Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) rating. The social dimension assessed the share of women on the board of directors and the existence of a human rights policy. The governance dimension evaluated whether a company had a Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) report adhering to the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) guidelines and a compliance or anti-corruption guideline.
Once the data was collected and evaluated, it was consolidated and weighted within a scoring model. The scores of all three dimensions were added on an equal percentage basis to form the final ranking score of a maximum of 100 points. The 1,000 companies with the highest score were awarded as the World’s Best Companies 2024 by TIME and Statista.
*When data from 2023 was not available, data from the last available fiscal year was used.
LONDON — Britain’s much-loved but overstretched health system is in critical condition and must “reform or die,” Prime Minister Keir Starmer said Thursday, claiming that years of neglect and botched restructuring had made the United Kingdom an increasingly unhealthy nation.
Starmer promised a 10-year plan to fix the state-funded National Health Service, which in recent years had gone from a source of national pride to a symbol of a state and society under growing strain.
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“We are becoming a sicker society,” Starmer said during a speech in London, pinning blame on the Conservative Party that was in power for 14 years until July.
“The last government broke the NHS,” he said.
A national icon on life support
Founded in 1948 in a country determined to build a fairer society out of the ruins of World War II, the NHS provides free health care to citizens and residents, funded through taxation.
So critical to the national identity that its 75th birthday was marked with a thanksgiving service at London’s Westminster Abbey, it has been dubbed Britain’s secular religion — though one in which some people are losing faith.
Even its most ardent supporters acknowledge the NHS is an unwieldy behemoth that has struggled for years to cope with an aging population and rising demand. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, waiting times for treatment have soared and public satisfaction has plummeted.
“Although the NHS does much good, patients repeatedly share their frustrations and confusion about accessing care,” said William Pett of patients’ group Healthwatch England. He added that “these challenges are not experienced equally, with poorer communities hit hardest.”
A critical diagnosis
Soon after Starmer’s center-left Labour Party won a landslide victory in the July 4 election, the government ordered a review of the NHS led by surgeon and former health minister Ara Darzi. In a report published Thursday, Darzi said he was “shocked by what I have found.”
He blamed more than a decade of “almost constant reorganization” along with “austerity and capital starvation” under Conservative governments for a deterioration “not just in the health service but in the state of the nation’s health.”
The NHS “has faced rising demand for health care from a society in distress,” Darzi said.
U.K. health spending grew by 2.4% a year between 2019 and 2024, according to the Institute for Fiscal Studies, down from an average of 3.6% over the longer term. Demand is growing much faster, as the British population grows larger and older. And the coronavirus pandemic piled on more pressure — sucking up resources, draining staff physically and emotionally, and creating a huge backlog of delayed tests and treatments.
The result, Darzi said, is that Britain has “appreciably higher cancer mortality rates than other countries,” while improvements in heart disease mortality rates have stalled since 2010. The British Heart Foundation said the number of people dying from cardiovascular disease is at the highest level in 14 years.
The Conservatives pointed out that Darzi, now a member of the House of Lords, was a health minister in a previous Labour government. Victoria Atkins, the Conservative Party’s spokeswoman on health issues, said Darzi’s report was a “cover for the Labour Party to raise our taxes in the budget in October.”
“We need to have a grown-up conversation about the NHS, but this is not the way to go about it,” Atkins told Sky News.
Prescription for recovery
Darzi said that fixing the health system will require spending more on health than on illness.
“Too many people end up in hospital, because too little is spent in the community,” he said.
Starmer, who claims the previous government left a 22 billion pound ($29 billion) “black hole” in the public finances, agreed with the need to move “from sickness to prevention.” But he said the answer does not lie simply in spending more money.
“We have to fix the plumbing before turning on the taps,” he said, proposing more local services and digital consultations, more treatment at home and reforms to improve productivity.
“The NHS may be in a critical condition, but its vital signs are strong,” Starmer said. But he said the choice was between hiking taxes to meet “ever-higher costs” and reforming the system.
“We know working people can’t afford to pay more, so it’s reform or die,” he said.
One option that is not being considered is a shift to a U.S.-style system of privately funded care. Even free-market Conservatives say — at least in public — that they support a free-to-use system funded by taxation.
“Nothing that I have found draws into question the principles of a health service that is taxpayer funded, free at the point of use, and based on need not ability to pay,” Darzi said.
“With the prominent exception of the United States, every advanced country has universal health coverage — and the rest of the world are striving towards it.”
Artificial intelligence and machine learning are becoming increasingly crucial to cybersecurity systems. Organizations need professionals with a strong background that mixes AI/ML knowledge with cybersecurity skills, bringing on board people like Nicole Carignan, Vice President of Strategic Cyber AI at Darktrace, who has a unique blend of technical and soft skills. Carignan was originally a dance major but was also working for NASA as a hardware IT engineer, which forged her path into AI and cybersecurity.
Where did you go to college?
Carignan: I went to Texas A&M University. I got a computer science degree, and the specialized track that I followed was in mathematics, artificial intelligence, computer/human interaction and assembly. My thesis was on setting up a maps application using graph theory in order to facilitate the best navigation — stuff that’s common nowadays with applications like Google Maps. But that was the type of AI applications we had back then, and it is cool to see how it’s evolved over time.
What was your first job in IT?
Carignan: I originally had a dance scholarship, but I was already working for NASA, supporting systems in mission control. They said, we will keep you employed throughout college and after if you get a computer science or engineering degree, so that’s how I got into the field. I started off in the federal IT space.
What made you decide to pursue cybersecurity?
Carignan: I got recruited into the intelligence community. Even though that was an IT role, it had a heavy emphasis on security. This was in 2000, so cybersecurity wasn’t really an industry yet. A few years later, I was on an overseas trip for work and I got hacked. That was actually what piqued my interest in cybersecurity, and I took a pretty big detour from my original plans.
Explore cybersecurity learning paths
What facilitated your move to AI?
Carignan: I always enjoyed the data analytics component of machine learning and AI. A decade into my career in the intelligence community, I joined a big data company that had large volumes of network telemetry and access to 300 different cyber threat intelligence feeds. Around that time, the typical journey of a security company was the transition into experimentation of supervised machine learning classifiers, and we started with classifying content of endpoints and communication language, moving into classification of patterns of reported attacks.
What is your job today?
Carignan: So I had the cross-section of data science, machine learning and security in my job experience, and the opportunity at Darktrace seemed like a perfect fit. They weren’t tackling the security problem with big data machine learning like a lot of other organizations, but rather they were looking at a much more customized, targeted, specific area by building out unsupervised machine learning and algorithms to understand every asset’s pattern of life within the environment. We do have the use of generative AI and LLMs, but we use that for semantic analysis and understanding changes in communications between email partners. Overall, what I saw Darktrace doing with very different machine learning techniques, I was intrigued to come on board.
What are some of the soft skills that helped you in your security and AI career?
Carignan: So, I’m a theater kid and a dance major. I think those skills really prepared me for the level of communication and collaboration that is needed to tackle some of the more complex problems that we face across the industry.
Any words of wisdom you’d like to share with people who are considering a career in AI and cybersecurity?
Carignan: I think it is really important to have a diversity of thought within your team. I’m a big advocate of neurodiversity. What drew me to Darktrace was how much they had achieved in equity for gender, and that they are trying to achieve with other minority groups. Cybersecurity isn’t a silo industry anymore, not with cloud, SaaS applications, AI. We need to approach enveloping these technologies into security across industries, and we can’t do that without diversity of thought.
The post How I got started: AI security executive appeared first on Security Intelligence.
The law of outer space, like so much else about the exoatmospheric realm, is under stress. The prodigious growth in private-sector space activities (exemplified by SpaceX’s proliferating Starlink constellation, and other corporations following only shortly behind) is matched by an ominous surge in military space activities – most vividly, the creation of the U.S. Space Force and counterpart combat entities in rival States, the threat of Russia placing a nuclear weapon in orbit, and China and others continuing to experiment with anti-satellite weapons and potential techniques. The world is on the precipice of several new types of space races, as countries and companies bid for first-mover advantages in the highest of high ground.
The law of outer space, in contrast, is old, incomplete, and untested. A family of foundational treaties dating to the 1960s and 1970s retains vitality, but provides only partial guidance. Space is decidedly not a “law-free zone,” but many of the necessary guard rails are obscure, and few analysts or operators have ventured into this sector.
A new treatise, the Woomera Manual on the International Law of Military Space Activities and Operations, has just been published by Oxford University Press to provide the first comprehensive, detailed analysis of the existing legal regime of space. As one of the editors of the Manual, I can testify to the long, winding, and arduous – but fascinating – journey to produce it, and the hope that it will provide much-needed clarity and precision about this fast-moving legal domain.
Military Manuals
This Manual follows a grand tradition of prior efforts to articulate the applicable international military law in contested realms, including the 1994 San Remo Manual on Naval Warfare, Harvard’s 2013 Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research Manual on Air and Missile Warfare, and the 2013 and 2017 Tallinn Manuals on Cyber Operations. The Woomera Manual was produced by a diverse team of legal and technical experts drawn from academia, practice, government, and other sectors in several countries (all acting in their personal capacities, not as representatives of their home governments or organizations). The process consumed six years (slowed considerably by the Covid-19 pandemic, which arrested the sequence of face-to-face drafting sessions).
The Manual is co-sponsored by four universities, among other participants: the University of Nebraska College of Law (home of Professor Jack Beard, the editor-in-chief), the University of Adelaide (with Professor Dale Stephens on the editorial board), the University of New South Wales—Canberra, and the University of Exeter (U.K.) The name “Woomera” was chosen in recognition of the small town of Woomera, South Australia, which was the site of the country’s first space missions, and in acknowledgement of the Aboriginal word for a remarkable spear-throwing device that enables greater accuracy and distance.
Comprehensive Coverage of a Broad Field
Three features of the Woomera Manual stand out. The first is the comprehensive nature of the undertaking. The Manual presents 48 rules, spanning the three critical time frames: ordinary peace time, periods of tension and crisis, and during an armed conflict. There may be a natural tendency to focus on that last frame, given the high stakes and the inherent drama of warfare, but the editors were keen to address the full spectrum, devoting due attention and analysis to the background rules that apply both to quotidian military space activities and to everyone else in space.
Complicating the legal analysis is the fragmentation of the international legal regime. In addition to “general” international law – which article III of the Outer Space Treaty declares is fully applicable in space – two “special” areas of law are implicated here. One, the law of armed conflict (also known as international humanitarian law) provides particularized jus in bello rules applicable between States engaged in war, including wars that begin in, or extend to, space. But the law of outer space is also recognized as another lex specialis, and it accordingly provides unique rules that supersede at least some aspects of the general international law regime. What should be done when two “special” areas of international law overlap and provide incompatible rules? The Woomera Manual is the first comprehensive effort to unravel that riddle.
The Law as It Is
A second defining characteristic of this Manual is the persistent, rigid focus on lex lata, the law as it currently is, rather than lex ferenda, the law as it may (or should) become. The authors, of course, each have their own policy preferences, and in their other works they freely opine about how the international space law regime should evolve (or be abruptly changed) to accommodate modern dangers and opportunities. But in this Manual, they have focused exclusively on describing the current legal structure, concentrating on treaties, customary international law, and other indicia of State practice. This is not the sort of manual in which the assembled experts “vote” on their competing concepts of the legal regime; instead, Woomera addresses what States (the sources and subjects of international law) say, do, and write. The authors have assembled a monumental library of State behaviors (including words as well as deeds, and silences as well as public pronouncements), while recognizing that diplomacy (and national security classification restrictions) often impede States explaining exactly why they did, or did not, act in a particular way in response to some other State’s provocations.
One feature that enormously facilitated the work on the Manual was a phase of “State engagement.” In early 2022, the Ministries of Foreign Affairs and Defense of the government of the Netherlands circulated a preliminary draft of the Woomera Manual to interested national governments and invited them to a June 2022 conference in The Hague to discuss it. Remarkably, two dozen of the States most active in space attended, providing two days of sustained, thoughtful, constructive commentary. The States were not asked to “approve” the document, but their input was enormously valuable (and resulted in an additional several months of painstaking work in finalizing the manuscript, as the editors scrambled to take into account the States’ voluminous comments and the new information they provided).
Space as a Dynamic Domain
Third, a manual on space law must acknowledge the rapidly-changing nature and scope of human activities in this environment, and the great likelihood that even more dramatic alterations are likely in the future. Existing patterns of behavior may alter abruptly, as new technologies and new economic opportunities emerge. The Manual attempts to peer into the future, addressing plausible scenarios that might foreseeably arise, but it resists the temptation to play with far-distant “Star Wars” fantasies.
The unfortunate reality here is that although the early years of the Space Age were remarkably productive for space law, the process stultified shortly thereafter. Within only a decade after Sputnik’s first orbit, the world had negotiated and put into place the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, which still provides the cardinal principles guiding space operations today. And within only another decade, three additional widely-accepted treaties were crafted: the 1968 astronaut Rescue Agreement, the 1971 Liability Convention, and the 1975 Registration Convention, as well as the 1979 Moon Convention (which has not attracted nearly the same level of global support and participation). But the articulation of additional necessary increments of international space law has been constipated since then – no new multilateral space-specific treaties have been implemented in the past four decades, and none is on the horizon today.
Sources and Shortcomings of International Space Law
The corpus of international space law is not obsolete, but it is under-developed. We have the essential principles and some of the specific corollaries, but we are lacking the detailed infrastructure that would completely flesh out all those general principles. Some important guidance may, however, be found in State practice, including the understudied negotiating history of the framework treaties for space law, particularly the Outer Space Treaty. The Manual provides important insights in this area, notably with respect to several ambiguous terms embedded in the treaties.
The authors of the Woomera Manual, therefore, were able to start their legal analysis with the framework treaties – unlike, for example, the authors of the Tallinn Manuals, covering international law applicable to cyber warfare, who had to begin without such a structured starting point. Still, the Woomera analysis confronted numerous lacunae, where the existing law and practice leave puzzling gaps. The persistent failure of the usual law-making institutions to craft additional increments of space arms control is all the more alarming as the United States, NATO, and others have declared space to be an operational or war-fighting domain.
Conclusion
It is hoped that the process of articulating the existing rules – and identifying the interstices between them – can provide useful day-to-day guidance for space law practitioners in government, academia, non-governmental organizations, the private sector, and elsewhere. The prospect of arms races and armed conflict in space unfortunately appears to be growing, and clarity about the prevailing rules has never been more important. It is a fascinating, dynamic, and fraught field.
IMAGE: A satellite orbits Earth. (via Getty Images)
The post In the Woomera Manual, International Law Meets Military Space Activities appeared first on Just Security.
